{"id":333,"date":"2011-10-04T13:30:00","date_gmt":"2011-10-04T19:30:00","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/bd-1-1-brain-architecture-5\/"},"modified":"2026-02-26T17:18:08","modified_gmt":"2026-02-26T17:18:08","slug":"bd-1-1-brain-architecture-5","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/bd-1-1-brain-architecture-5\/","title":{"rendered":"BD 1.1 Brain architecture"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" src=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2011\/11\/baby-girl1.jpg\" alt=\"Baby on tummy with head up facing forward.\" class=\"wp-image-281\" \/><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Basics of genetics<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Brain development begins soon after conception and continues well beyond birth. Genes, the basic physical unit of heredity, are key to brain development. Genes set the parameters for the basic structures of the developing brain. Genes and experiences work together, and we can think of them as being inextricably linked.&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The next reading provides an overview of some key terms that are important for understanding that both genetic and environmental factors influence brain development.&nbsp;On the pages that follow, we will look more closely at these concepts.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-read-Z1fhnwT wp-block-lazyblock-read\"><div class=\"read context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/transcript\/read-basics-of-genetics\/\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">READ <\/span><span class=\"tap-description\">Basics of genetics<\/span><\/span>      \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Now check your understanding of some of these terms.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-interact-Z1zKcpw wp-block-lazyblock-interact\"><div class=\"interact-link context-container\">\n  <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/hscsr.rrc.ca\/secd\/interactions\/dragAndMatch-basicsOfGenetics\/basicsOfGenetics.html\" class=\"tap-container interact\">\n    <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"tap-content\">\n      <span class=\"tap-label\">INTERACT<\/span>\n      <span class=\"tap-description\">Genetic terms<\/span>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the next video, Dr. Marla Sokolowski,&nbsp;professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Toronto, describes what a gene is.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript-Z1pEVaq wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Sokolowski &#8211; gene (1:36)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/90200627?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div><br>\n      <p><a href=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/transcript\/transcript-sokolowski-gene\/\" target=\"_blank\">Sokolowski &#8211; gene &#8211; Text Transcript<\/a><\/p>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Listen now as Sokolowski describes cell differentiation during the early prenatal period. She discusses differential gene expression that leads to the production of different types of cells.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript-1CgIzI wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Sokolowski &#8211; cell differentiation (1:10)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/90200547?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div><br>\n      <p><a href=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/transcript\/transcript-sokolowski-cell-differentiation\/\" target=\"_blank\">Sokolowski &#8211; cell differentiation &#8211; Text Transcript<\/a><\/p>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For some background on gene expression, listen<span style=\"color: #000000\"> to this&nbsp;explanation&nbsp;<\/span>by <span style=\"color: #000000\">D<\/span>r. Charles Nelson,&nbsp;professor of Pediatrics and Neuroscience at Harvard Medical School.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript-Z14umM2 wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Nelson &#8211; gene expression (1:21)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/87876920?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div><br>\n      <p><a href=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/transcript\/transcript-nelson-gene-expression\/\" target=\"_blank\">Nelson &#8211; gene expression &#8211; Text Transcript<\/a><\/p>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignleft is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/international-edition\/files\/2015\/03\/Gene-and-dimmer-switch-graphic-300x153.jpg\" alt=\"Gene and dimmer switch graphic. Shows dimmer switches superimposed over DNA strand.\" class=\"wp-image-6385\" style=\"width:300px;height:auto\" \/><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">Nelson explains that gene expression is influenced by the environment;\u00a0<\/span><\/span>in other words, one&#8217;s experiences. <span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">In the next video,\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Dr. Meaghan Jones, assistant professor, Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics at the University of Manitoba, uses the analogy of a dimmer switch to explain epigenetics.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript-Z1hKTcm wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Jones \u2013 epigenetics (1:03)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/295824843?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div><br>\n      <p><a href=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/transcript\/transcript-jones-epigenetics\/\" target=\"_blank\">Jones \u2013 epigenetics &#8211; Text Transcript<\/a><\/p>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The next video is from KidCareCanada. Dr. Thomas Boyce adds to our understanding of epigenetics and explains that experiences &#8211; both positive and negative &#8211; affect how genes are expressed without changes to the genes themselves.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-explore-YSjfM wp-block-lazyblock-explore\"><div class=\"explore context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.yout-ube.com\/watch?v=L-_53c-Gzg8\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Epigenetics explained<\/span>\n         \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the next video, Dr. Michael Skinner, professor in the School of Biological Sciences at Washington State University, discusses the concept of genetic determinism and explains that as we learn more about how epigenetics regulates gene function, we have a better understanding of how certain genes get turned on or off &#8211; and it is not all about genetic sequence.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript-1I6oRv wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Skinner \u2013 moving beyond genetic determinism (1:36)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/305834668?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div><br>\n      <p><a href=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/transcript\/transcript-skinner-moving-beyond-genetic-determinism\/\" target=\"_blank\">Skinner \u2013 moving beyond genetic determinism &#8211; Text Transcript<\/a><\/p>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Listen now as Skinner reviews the difference between genetics and epigenetics and explains that epigenetics is the &#8220;molecular factors around the DNA that regulate how the DNA functions, completely independent of the DNA sequence&#8221;.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript-Z14LWvn wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Skinner \u2013 DNA and epigenetics (2:46)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/305834277?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div><br>\n      <p><a href=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/transcript\/transcript-skinner-dna-and-epigenetics\/\" target=\"_blank\">Skinner \u2013 DNA and epigenetics &#8211; Text Transcript<\/a><\/p>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">&#8230;imagine a computer in which DNA or the genome (the complete set of 23 chromosomes) is the hardware. Epigenetics is the software that tells the genome how and when to work, as well as how hard to work&#8221; (Clinton, 2020, p. 84-85).<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The field of epigenetics is relatively new and research is cutting edge. Neurobiological and genetic studies confirm that a range of early human experiences have an effect on brain architecture (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2007a). Negative experiences, such as poor nutrition, environmental pollutants, drugs, and chronic stress, all can have long-lasting, possibly even multi-generational deleterious effects on health, learning, and behaviour. On the other hand, positive experiences such as nurturing and stimulation also affect the genome.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">See the next reading from the Center on the Developing Child for an infographic that concisely explains epigenetics as well as details about common misconceptions related to genes and early development.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-read-ZA4aRw wp-block-lazyblock-read\"><div class=\"read context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/developingchild.harvard.edu\/resources\/what-is-epigenetics-and-how-does-it-relate-to-child-development\/\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">READ<\/span><span class=\"tap-description\">Epigenetics and child development: How children\u2019s experiences affect their genes<\/span><\/span>      \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">We will explore epigenetics research on p. 2.1 of this module.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-further-full-Z1rXemN wp-block-lazyblock-further-full\"><div class=\"further-full\">\n<div class=\"wtkm\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It is clear that&nbsp;genes and experiences do not operate in isolation.&nbsp;The following reading explains how the instructions from the genes,&nbsp;in combination with experience, influence&nbsp;brain development&nbsp;during the prenatal period and following the baby&#8217;s birth.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-read-CvRgr wp-block-lazyblock-read\"><div class=\"read context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/transcript\/read-brain-development-before-and-after-birth\/\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">READ<\/span><span class=\"tap-description\">Brain development: Before and after birth<\/span><\/span>      \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The next game will help you review key points from the reading.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-interact-140wa7 wp-block-lazyblock-interact\"><div class=\"interact-link context-container\">\n  <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/hscsr.rrc.ca\/secd\/interactions\/BD-matchTheTerms\/BD-matchTheTerms.html\" class=\"tap-container interact\">\n    <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"tap-content\">\n      <span class=\"tap-label\">INTERACT<\/span>\n      <span class=\"tap-description\">Match the terms<\/span>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The link below is part of an interactive website about the human brain and behaviour, called&nbsp;<em>The Brain from Top to Bottom<\/em>. Visit the section below for a wealth of information on brain changes from conception through the embryo stage.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-explore-ZlblxO wp-block-lazyblock-explore\"><div class=\"explore context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/thebrain.mcgill.ca\/flash\/d\/d_09\/d_09_cr\/d_09_cr_dev\/d_09_cr_dev.html\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">EXPLORE<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">From fertilization to embryo<\/span>\n         \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the following video, Nelson presents an overview of the stages of brain development.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript-Z1Ts4oN wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Nelson &#8211; neural development and life-long plasticity (13:14)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/87877276?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div><br>\n      <p><a href=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/transcript\/transcript-nelson-neural-development-and-life-long-plasticity\/\" target=\"_blank\">Nelson &#8211; neural development and life-long plasticity &#8211; Text Transcript<\/a><\/p>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<p><\/p><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"neurons\">Neurons<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Our brains are made up of special cells called <strong>neurons<\/strong>,&nbsp;&nbsp;which are the basic building blocks of the brain and spinal cord. Unlike other areas of the body, in which new cells grow throughout our lives, most of the approximately 100 billion neurons are formed before birth. This happens through a process called neurogenesis. This process continues in some brain structures until about age two.&nbsp;There is controversy as to whether any regions of the brain make new cells as we age. Neurons collect signals from several sources, integrate and transform information, and distribute information to other cells.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2012\/03\/neurons.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"198\" src=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2012\/03\/neurons-300x198.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2171\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">click to enlarge<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em><strong>Synapses<\/strong><\/em> are the connections between neurons, while <em><strong>neurotransmitters<\/strong><\/em> are chemicals that transfer across the synapse from one neuron to the next. Connected neurons make up millions of neural pathways in the central nervous system. These pathways form the brain\u2019s communication system within the brain and with the rest of the body. Glial cells are other cell types that support and insulate the neurons.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">More neural connections develop in the first few years of life than at any other time. Over 1 million neural connections form every second during these years! (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, Brain Architecture, n.d., para. 2). These connections are vital in building a healthy brain.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Click on the Interact that follows to learn about the main components of a synapse&nbsp;and how neurons form connections with each other across the synapses.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-interact-Z1ivcfc wp-block-lazyblock-interact\"><div class=\"interact-link context-container\">\n  <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/hscsr.rrc.ca\/secd\/interactions\/Synapse\/synapse.html\" class=\"tap-container interact\">\n    <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"tap-content\">\n      <span class=\"tap-label\">INTERACT<\/span>\n      <span class=\"tap-description\">Synapse<\/span>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Genes and environment interact throughout brain development. Genetic programming organizes neurons and neuronal development and lays the groundwork for basic networks and connections among major brain regions. Environment and experience refines these connections, enhancing some connections while eliminating others. Every experience excites some neural circuits and leaves others alone. While neural circuits used over and over become stronger, those that are not used are eliminated, resulting in <em>synaptic pruning<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Even during pregnancy, experiences and genes interact to establish neural circuits and shape the brain&#8217;s architecture. We know from research that many experiences during pregnancy have the potential for detrimental life-long consequences on fetal brain development, for example, exposure to tobacco, drugs and alcohol; stress, infection, violence during pregnancy; certain medications; limited access to prenatal care and screening; and environmental hazards.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The following video, from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child at Harvard University, provides a visual summary of brain cells forming connections and pathways in the early years.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-explore-1aDHJg wp-block-lazyblock-explore\"><div class=\"explore context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/developingchild.harvard.edu\/resources\/experiences-build-brain-architecture\/\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">EXPLORE<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Experiences build brain architecture<\/span>\n         \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2021\/10\/synapticDensity-updatedOct2021.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"300\" height=\"224\" src=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2021\/10\/synapticDensity-updatedOct2021-300x224.jpg\" alt=\"Synaptic density. Shows three children aged at birth, age six, and age fourteen. Beside each is illustration of synaptic density: least for birth, very many connections at age six, and less connections at age fourteen.\" class=\"wp-image-12197\" srcset=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2021\/10\/synapticDensity-updatedOct2021-300x224.jpg 300w, https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2021\/10\/synapticDensity-updatedOct2021-768x573.jpg 768w, https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2021\/10\/synapticDensity-updatedOct2021-1024x764.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2021\/10\/synapticDensity-updatedOct2021.jpg 1301w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Building neural connections and pathways is not all that happens in the first months and years of life. Neurons, connections and even whole neural pathways are discarded, while others are strengthened. The brain increases its efficiency by eliminating little-used pathways and reinforcing useful ones. This process of connecting (&#8220;wiring&#8221;) and refining (&#8220;pruning&#8221;) continues through infancy, childhood and adolescence. Synaptic connections are overproduced then pruned over time so that by age six, a child&#8217;s brain&nbsp;has many more&nbsp;synapses than the adolescent or adult brain. Click on the Synaptic density image to have a closer look at this.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the following clip, neuroscientist Dr. Bryan Kolb,&nbsp;professor at the Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, describes the early brain processes of wiring and pruning using the metaphor of a piece of marble that is sculpted and changes from a stone to a beautiful object of art.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript-Zonto3 wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Kolb \u2013 early brain development (1:11)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/296513048?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div><br>\n      <p><a href=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/transcript\/transcript-kolb-early-brain-development\/\" target=\"_blank\">Kolb \u2013 early brain development &#8211; Text Transcript<\/a><\/p>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the next video, the late Sir Michael Rutter, professor of Developmental Psychopathology at the Institute of Psychiatry, King&#8217;s College London for many years, explains that biology is not deterministic. While genetic programming organizes neuronal development, there are individual differences in those that are strengthened and those that are eliminated.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript-uyQXz wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand-transcript\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Rutter &#8211; biology (2:23)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/90200080?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div><br>\n      <p><a href=\"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/transcript\/transcript-rutter-biology\/\" target=\"_blank\">Rutter &#8211; biology &#8211; Text Transcript<\/a><\/p>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Brain structures<\/h3>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/play\/files\/2018\/12\/23-right-and-left-hemisphere.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/play\/files\/2018\/12\/23-right-and-left-hemisphere-222x300.png\" alt=\"Top view illustration of right and left hemispheres of the brain.\" class=\"wp-image-6343\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Click to enlarge<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The brain is divided into three regions, from the most primitive to the most evolved brain area: the hindbrain, the midbrain and the forebrain. These three regions comprise the main structures of the brain. The hindbrain at the back of the brain includes the cerebellum. The brain stem is in the midbrain at the base of the brain. The forebrain includes the corpus callosum, limbic system and cerebral cortex.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In humans, the cerebral cortex is highly specialized and significantly larger than the cortex found in other mammals, including monkeys and chimpanzees.&nbsp;The cerebral cortex is comprised of two hemispheres (right and left) each of which is divided into five lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal occipital, and insular. The fifth lobe, called the insular lobe or insular cortex, is found deep within the brain and is difficult to see without magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It is connected to the other parts of the brain and their functions (Chauhan, et al., 2021; Kortz &amp; Lillehei, 2023; Menon, 2025). Play the following game to learn where the brain structures are located. (Note: the insular lobe is not included.)<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-interact-2azImi wp-block-lazyblock-interact\"><div class=\"interact-link context-container\">\n  <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/hscsr.rrc.ca\/secd\/interactions\/makeYourBrain\/makeYourBrain.html\" class=\"tap-container interact\">\n    <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"tap-content\">\n      <span class=\"tap-label\">INTERACT<\/span>\n      <span class=\"tap-description\">Make your brain<\/span>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The following labelled diagram provides more information on some brain structures. After reviewing the diagram, play the game that follows to test your understanding of the function of these structures.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-interact-1ATHoO wp-block-lazyblock-interact\"><div class=\"interact-link context-container\">\n  <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/hscsr.rrc.ca\/secd\/interactions\/brainFunctions-final\/brainFunctions-final.html\" class=\"tap-container interact\">\n    <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"tap-content\">\n      <span class=\"tap-label\">INTERACT<\/span>\n      <span class=\"tap-description\">Brain functions by area<\/span>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-interact-1Qka7b wp-block-lazyblock-interact\"><div class=\"interact-link context-container\">\n  <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/hscsr.rrc.ca\/secd\/interactions\/brainFunctions-dragNdropReview\/brainFunctions-dragNdropReview.html\" class=\"tap-container interact\">\n    <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"tap-content\">\n      <span class=\"tap-label\">INTERACT<\/span>\n      <span class=\"tap-description\">Brain functions review<\/span>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-further-full-2papG6 wp-block-lazyblock-further-full\"><div class=\"further-full\">\n<div class=\"wtkm\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For a detailed look at the human brain, check out the interactive website that allows you to see a &#8220;map&#8221; of the brain created by using a variety of imaging techniques.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-explore-hkqfM wp-block-lazyblock-explore\"><div class=\"explore context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pbs.org\/wgbh\/nova\/body\/mapping-the-brain.html\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">EXPLORE<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Mapping the brain<\/span>\n         \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The next readings, from the <em>Encyclopedia for Early Childhood Development,<\/em> discuss how brain (neuro) imaging is used to study the effects of environmental and genetic factors on brain development as it relates to language development.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-read-2CSDQ wp-block-lazyblock-read\"><div class=\"read context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.child-encyclopedia.com\/brain\/according-experts\/imaging-growing-brain\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">READ<\/span><span class=\"tap-description\">Imaging the growing brain<\/span><\/span>      \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-read-1f8xjV wp-block-lazyblock-read\"><div class=\"read context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.child-encyclopedia.com\/language-development-and-literacy\/according-experts\/biological-bases-language-development\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">READ<\/span><span class=\"tap-description\">Biological bases of language development<\/span><\/span>      \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<p><\/p><\/div><\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Basics of genetics Brain development begins soon after conception and continues well beyond birth. Genes, the basic physical unit of heredity, are key to brain development. Genes set the parameters for the basic structures of the developing brain. Genes and experiences work together, and we can think of them as being inextricably linked.&nbsp;&nbsp; The next [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":8,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":10,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-333","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/333","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/8"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=333"}],"version-history":[{"count":206,"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/333\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":16304,"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/333\/revisions\/16304"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=333"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}