{"id":6295,"date":"2016-05-02T18:53:11","date_gmt":"2016-05-02T18:53:11","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/secd-preview\/?page_id=6295"},"modified":"2025-11-10T21:47:15","modified_gmt":"2025-11-10T21:47:15","slug":"bd-1-1","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/secd-preview\/bd-1-1\/","title":{"rendered":"BD 1.1 NA"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2011\/11\/baby-girl1.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-281\" \/><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Basics of genetics<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Brain development begins soon after conception and continues well beyond birth. Genes, the basic physical unit of heredity, are key to brain development. Genes set the parameters for the basic structures of the developing brain. Genes and experiences work together, and we can think of them as being inextricably linked.&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The next reading provides an overview of some key terms that are important for understanding that both genetic and environmental factors influence brain development.&nbsp;On the pages that follow, we will look more closely at these concepts.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-read-1Ta9Dl wp-block-lazyblock-read\"><div class=\"read context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/secd-files.s3.amazonaws.com\/pdfs\/BasicsOfGenetics.pdf?X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&amp;X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&amp;X-Amz-Credential=AKIA3JEJM3JRLSOOGYBG%2F20260519%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&amp;X-Amz-Date=20260519T214507Z&amp;X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&amp;X-Amz-Expires=1000&amp;X-Amz-Signature=bea44b2a3a4a11933e694e06c58e8fe095f527a100baed65654fef1ad984f0e6\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">READ<\/span><span class=\"tap-description\">Basics of Genetics<\/span><\/span>      \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Now check your understanding of some of these terms.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-interact-Z13q6nD wp-block-lazyblock-interact\"><div class=\"interact-link context-container\">\n  <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/hscsr.rrc.ca\/secd\/interactions\/dragAndMatch-basicsOfGenetics\/basicsOfGenetics.html\" class=\"tap-container interact\">\n    <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"tap-content\">\n      <span class=\"tap-label\">INTERACT<\/span>\n      <span class=\"tap-description\">Genetic terms<\/span>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>In the next video, biologist Dr. Marla Sokolowski of the University of Toronto describes what a gene is.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-2vXq4f wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Sokolowski &#8211; gene (1:36)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/90200627?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Listen now as Sokolowski describes cell differentiation during the early prenatal period. She discusses differential gene expression that leads to the production of different types of cells.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>View | Sokolowski \u2013 cell differentiation (1:10)&nbsp;&nbsp;<em><strong>Not available in this preview<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For some background on gene expression, listen<span style=\"color: #000000\"> to this&nbsp;explanation&nbsp;<\/span>by <span style=\"color: #000000\">D<\/span>r. Charles Nelson of Harvard University.<em><span style=\"color: #339966\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>View | Nelson \u2013&nbsp;Nelson \u2013 gene expression (1:21) &nbsp;<em><strong>Not available in this preview<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignleft\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/international-edition\/files\/2015\/03\/Gene-and-dimmer-switch-graphic-300x153.jpg\" alt=\"Gene and dimmer switch graphic\" class=\"wp-image-6385\" \/><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">Nelson explains that gene expression is influenced by the environment, <\/span><\/span>in other words, one&#8217;s experiences.<span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><span style=\"color: #000000\"> In the next video,&nbsp; <\/span><\/span>Dr. Meaghan Jones, of the University of Manitoba, uses the analogy of a dimmer switch to explain epigenetics.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-Zh9x7U wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Jones \u2013 epigenetics (1:03)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/295824843?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>In the next video, as&nbsp;Dr. Michael Skinner, from Washington State University, discusses the concept of genetic determinism and explains that as we learn more about how epigenetics regulates gene function we have a better understanding of how certain genes get turned on or off &#8211; and it is not all about genetic sequence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>View | Skinner \u2013 moving beyond genetic determinism (1:36)&nbsp;&nbsp;<em><strong>Not available in this preview<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Listen now as Skinner reviews the difference between genetics and epigenetics and explains that epigenetics is the &#8220;molecular factors around the DNA that regulate how the DNA functions, completely independent of the DNA sequence&#8221;.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>View | Skinner \u2013 DNA and epigenetics (2:46) &nbsp;<em><strong>Not available in this preview<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The field of epigenetics is relatively new and research is cutting edge. Neurobiological and genetic studies confirm that a range of early human experiences have an effect on brain architecture (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2007). Negative experiences, such as poor nutrition, environmental pollutants, drugs, and chronic stress, all can have long-lasting, possibly even multi-generational deleterious effects on health, learning, and behavior. On the other hand, positive experiences such as nurturing and stimulation also affect the genome.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>See the next reading from the Center on the Developing Child for an infographic that concisely explains epigenetics as well as details about common misconceptions related to genes and early development.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-read-ZPboJm wp-block-lazyblock-read\"><div class=\"read context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/developingchild.harvard.edu\/resources\/what-is-epigenetics-and-how-does-it-relate-to-child-development\/\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">READ<\/span><span class=\"tap-description\">Epigenetics and Child Development: How Children\u2019s Experiences Affect Their Genes<\/span><\/span>      \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"neurons\">Neurons<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Our brains are made up of special cells called <strong>neurons<\/strong>,&nbsp;&nbsp;which are the basic building blocks of the brain and spinal cord. Unlike other areas of the body, in which new cells grow throughout our lives, most of the approximately 100 billion neurons are formed before birth. This happens through a process called neurogenesis. This process continues in some brain structures until about age two.&nbsp;There is controversy as to whether any regions of the brain make new cells as we age. Neurons collect signals from several sources, integrate and transform information, and distribute information to other cells.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2012\/03\/neurons.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2012\/03\/neurons-300x198.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-2171\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">click to enlarge<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p><em><strong>Synapses<\/strong><\/em> are the connections between neurons, while <em><strong>neurotransmitters<\/strong><\/em> are chemicals that transfer across the synapse from one neuron to the next. Connected neurons make up millions of neural pathways in the central nervous system. These pathways form the brain\u2019s communication system within the brain and with the rest of the body. Glial cells are other cell types that support and insulate the neurons.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>More neural connections develop in the first few years of life than at any other time. Over 1 million neural connections form every second during these years! (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, Brain Architecture, n.d. para 2). These connections are vital in building a healthy brain.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Click on the Interact that follows to learn about the main components of a synapse&nbsp;and how neurons form connections with each other across the synapses.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Interact | Synapse&nbsp;&nbsp;<em><strong>Not available in this preview<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Genes and environment interact throughout brain development. Genetic programming organizes neurons and neuronal development and lays the groundwork for basic networks and connections among major brain regions. Environment and experience refines these connections, enhancing some connections while eliminating others. Every experience excites some neural circuits and leaves others alone. While neural circuits used over and over become stronger, those that are not used are eliminated, resulting in <em>synaptic pruning<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Even during pregnancy, experiences and genes interact to establish neural circuits and shape the brain&#8217;s architecture. We know from research that many experiences during pregnancy have the potential for detrimental life-long consequences on fetal brain development, for example, exposure to tobacco, drugs and alcohol; stress, infection, violence during pregnancy; certain medications; limited access to prenatal care and screening; and environmental hazards.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The following video, from the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child at Harvard University, provides a visual summary of brain cells forming connections and pathways in the early years.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-explore-2ysQT wp-block-lazyblock-explore\"><div class=\"explore context-container\">\n   <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/developingchild.harvard.edu\/resources\/experiences-build-brain-architecture\/\" class=\"tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">EXPLORE<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Experiences build brain architecture<\/span>\n         \n      <\/div>\n   <\/a>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2021\/10\/synapticDensity-updatedOct2021.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/third-edition\/files\/2021\/10\/synapticDensity-updatedOct2021-300x224.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-12197\" \/><\/a><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Building neural connections and pathways is not all that happens in the first months and years of life. Neurons, connections and even whole neural pathways are discarded, while others are strengthened. The brain increases its efficiency by eliminating little-used pathways and reinforcing useful ones. This process of connecting (&#8220;wiring&#8221;) and refining (&#8220;pruning&#8221;) continues through infancy, childhood and adolescence. Synaptic connections are overproduced then pruned over time so that by age six, a child&#8217;s brain&nbsp;has many more&nbsp;synapses than the adolescent or adult brain. Click on the Synaptic density image to have a closer look at this.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In the following clip, neuroscientist Dr. Bryan Kolb,&nbsp;professor at the Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, describes the early brain processes of wiring and pruning using the metaphor of a piece of marble that is sculpted and changes from a stone to a beautiful object of art.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-watch-expand-1vWz6c wp-block-lazyblock-watch-expand\"><div class=\"watch-expand expand-container context-container\">\n   <div class=\"watch tap-to-expand tap-container\">\n      <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"tap-content\">\n         <span class=\"tap-label\">VIEW<\/span>\n         <span class=\"tap-description\">Kolb \u2013 early brain development (1:11)<\/span>\n        \n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n   <div class=\"output-content collapse\" style=\"height: 0px;\">\n      <div class=\"vimeo-container\">\n         <iframe webkitallowfullscreen=\"\" mozallowfullscreen=\"\" allowfullscreen=\"\" src=\"\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/296513048?api=1\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\n      <\/div>\n   <\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p>In the next video, the late Sir Michael Rutter, professor of Developmental Psychopathology at the Institute of Psychiatry, King&#8217;s College London for many years, explains that biology is not deterministic. While genetic programming organizes neuronal development, there are individual differences in those that are strengthened and those that are eliminated.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>View | Rutter &#8211; biology (2:23)&nbsp;&nbsp;<em><strong>Not available in this preview<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Brain structures<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The brain is divided into three regions, from the most primitive to the most evolved brain area: the hindbrain, the midbrain and the forebrain. These three regions comprise the main structures of the brain. The hindbrain at the back of the brain includes the cerebellum. The brain stem is in the midbrain at the base of the brain. The forebrain includes the corpus callosum, limbic system and cerebral cortex.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/play\/files\/2018\/12\/23-right-and-left-hemisphere.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/play\/files\/2018\/12\/23-right-and-left-hemisphere-222x300.png\" alt=\"right and left hemispheres of the brain\" class=\"wp-image-6343\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Click to enlarge<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>In humans, the cerebral cortex is highly specialized and significantly larger than the cortex found in other mammals, including monkeys and chimpanzees.\u00a0The cerebral cortex is comprised of two hemispheres (right and left) each of which is divided into five lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal occipital, and insular. The fifth lobe, called the insular lobe or insular cortex, is found deep within the brain and is difficult to see without magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It is connected to the other parts of the brain and their functions (Chauhan, et al., 2021; Kortz &amp; Lillehei, 2023; Menon, 2025). Play the following game to learn where the brain structures are located. (Note: the insular lobe is not included.) <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Interact | Make your brain&nbsp;Brain&nbsp;&nbsp;<em><strong>Not available in this preview<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The following labelled diagram provides more information on some brain structures. After reviewing the diagram, play the game that follows to test your understanding of the function of these brain structures.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Interact | Brain functions by area&nbsp;&nbsp;<em><strong>Not available in this preview<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"lazyblock-interact-Z27yKDc wp-block-lazyblock-interact\"><div class=\"interact-link context-container\">\n  <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/hscsr.rrc.ca\/secd\/interactions\/brainFunctions-dragNdropReview\/brainFunctions-dragNdropReview.html\" class=\"tap-container interact\">\n    <div class=\"tap-icon\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"tap-content\">\n      <span class=\"tap-label\">INTERACT<\/span>\n      <span class=\"tap-description\"> Brain functions review<\/span>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/a>\n<\/div><\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Basics of genetics Brain development begins soon after conception and continues well beyond birth. Genes, the basic physical unit of heredity, are key to brain development. Genes set the parameters for the basic structures of the developing brain. Genes and experiences work together, and we can think of them as being inextricably linked.&nbsp;&nbsp; The next [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":8,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"template-text-only.php","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-6295","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/secd-preview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/6295","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/secd-preview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/secd-preview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/secd-preview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/8"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/secd-preview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=6295"}],"version-history":[{"count":15,"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/secd-preview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/6295\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":6712,"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/secd-preview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/6295\/revisions\/6712"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.scienceofecd.com\/secd-preview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=6295"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}